10 March 2025
Wool is a sartorial cornerstone, a textile with timeless allure and unmatched benefits. For centuries, humans have engaged in the time-honoured tradition of wool harvesting. This practice can offer significant environmental advantages and fosters a considerate and respectful bond with the farmed animals. Its intrinsic qualities have established it as a go-to fabric for comfort and style. Wool has an evergreen versatility, offering warmth during the cold season and breathable luxury in the summer. Wool’s appeal is truly universal as the most widely utilised animal fibre, constituting 1.2% of all global textile fibres.
Wool’s environmental Impact
Wool is often cited as having a notable environmental impact among various textile materials, supposedly contributing significantly to global warming according to sources like the Higg Index. What accounts for wool’s substantial ecological footprint?
A Respectful Dialogue with the Environment
Sheep farming, integral to wool production, demands expansive pastures to allow animals ample room for grazing. This aspect has a considerable influence on global land utilisation. According to the UK’s Department for Environment, Food and Agriculture, an estimated 2000 hectares of land are required to produce a single tonne of wool — a stark contrast to the mere 1.3 hectares needed for an equivalent amount of cotton. Consequently, wool’s relatively higher requirement for agricultural land is increasingly noteworthy in a world where arable space is becoming ever more precious.
At the same time, holistic and extensive sheep grazing practices offer a range of environmental benefits that are both immediate and far-reaching. When managed responsibly, grazing can enhance soil health by promoting aeration and nutrient cycling. In Germany, sheep are proclaimed to have “the golden step”, boosting soil fertility while increasing its ability to capture carbon, thereby offsetting greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, controlled grazing contributes to increased biodiversity, preventing any single plant species from dominating the landscape and allowing a more varied ecosystem to flourish. This holistic approach to land management can also help control invasive species and reduce the risk of wildfires by keeping vegetation in check. In essence, sustainable sheep grazing stands as an eco-conscious practice that harmonises agricultural productivity with ecological well-being.
Regarding land use, the pastoral landscapes where sheep graze are often unfit for other agricultural activities, making wool production a natural use of these spaces. As we’re entering an era with increased focus on the efficient use of resources, it’s essential to promote shepherding as a symbiosis of environmental regeneration and valuable income for local communities. A study published in 2022 and conducted in Spain’s Basque Country showed that “the benefits of extensive dairy sheep grazing in the research area include the production of healthy and high-quality foods and multiple ecological benefits including biodiversity conservation. Extensive dairy sheep grazing contributes to rural development by generating employment and income in marginal, low-productivity lands that can support few economic alternatives.” (Source: Agronomy for Sustainable Development)
A multifunctional approach combining sheep farming for dairy and wool optimises using raw materials whilst reducing the overall environmental footprint.
Rethinking Methane: The Environmental Dynamics of Sheep and Other Livestock
While sheep, goats, and alpacas are known for emitting methane, a potent greenhouse gas, it’s worth noting that this forms part of a complex ecological equation. On average, a sheep emits about 25 litres of methane daily. In New Zealand, for example, the sheep population accounts for 80% of the country’s methane emissions. Yet it’s important to remember that methane’s impact, although 28 times stronger than CO2’s in terms of its greenhouse effect, is mitigated by the fact that CO2 is produced in much larger volumes. To clarify: Methane is a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (CO2) — in fact, its ability to trap heat in the atmosphere is 28 times greater than that of CO2. However, the total amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere is much more significant than the amount of methane. Because of this greater volume, CO2 still poses a more substantial threat to global warming, even though molecule for molecule, methane, is more effective at trapping heat.
Furthermore, animal manure emits nitrous oxide, which is up to 298 times more potent than CO2. However, animal-feed innovations and incentives for sustainable farming practices that balance agricultural productivity with environmental stewardship can drastically reduce these emissions.
Innovations in Sustainable Wool Cleaning
Advancements in wool cleaning processes are reducing the reliance on chemicals. With sheep varieties like Merino, less is more — minimal bleaching is required, resulting in a reduced environmental impact compared to other animal fibres like alpaca.
Alpaca wool requires a more substantial chemical regimen for purification. Specifically, alpaca wool treatment results in a chemical discharge into water that is potentially fourteen times greater than that of conventional sheep wool. Nonetheless, ongoing advancements in sustainable practices on a scalable level signal that environmentally friendly production processes are realistic alternatives.
Circular innovations in water recycling systems result in an impressive wastewater reduction, capturing used water for filtration and subsequent reuse. Additionally, plant-based detergents and enzymatic cleansers are replacing harsh chemicals in industrial settings, ensuring cleaning processes that are both effective and eco-friendly.
Further research is devoted to “green chemistry,” focusing on cleaning agents that easily biodegrade. Successful studies have applied supercritical CO2 as a waterless cleaning process, reducing energy usage and avoiding toxic effluence.
Alternative methods avoiding chemicals, such as ultrasound cleaning, which employs sound waves to remove impurities, are increasingly being explored as more sustainable substitutes for traditional, chemical-intensive processes.
These technological leaps could benefit wools like alpaca, which traditionally requires more chemical treatment.
Does animal-friendly wool even exist?
Wool, particularly the soft merino variety from Australia and New Zealand, is highly prized in Western countries. However, its production has come under scrutiny due to various scandals revealing suboptimal conditions for the sheep involved. Many consumers need to be made aware of the ethical concerns associated with its sourcing.
Mulesing: A By-product of Excessive Breeding?
Merino sheep have been selectively bred to increase their skin surface area to maximise wool production, resulting in excessive skin folds. Unfortunately, this makes them more susceptible to Flystrike—a condition where parasitic larvae infest the warm folds of their skin. Flystrike is a silent killer, often unrecognisable until an individual animal is near death. Flystrike is particularly problematic in subtropical and temperate climate zones in places such as Australia and New Zealand. To mitigate this, some farmers resort to the controversial practice of mulesing, in which portions of the sheep’s skin are removed without anaesthesia to deter the larvae.
Mulesing is a distressing albeit protective measure for sheep, having involuntarily arisen due to extensive breeding and large-scale herd management. In Australia, the average sheep flock numbers around 2,500 animals. Consequently, smaller, more attentively managed flocks inherently foster humane conditions for each animal and would render mulesing unnecessary. However, the push for low-cost wool often puts individual farmers under financial strain, making adopting more compassionate practices challenging.
A more humane yet labour-intensive alternative to mulesing involves frequent fleece inspections and the application of insecticides. Such an approach automatically requires a larger workforce, making it impractical for large-scale or industrial sheep farms. The bulk of the wool used in clothing originates from New Zealand and Australia, where approximately 70 million sheep are distributed across extensive farming operations. The limited labour resources constrain farmers from opting for this more animal-friendly technique.
Do Organic Farms Mean Happier Sheep?
While organic farming doesn’t automatically guarantee animal welfare, it offers advantages over conventional methods. In organic settings, sheep are nourished with organic feed and enjoy more spacious living conditions due to enforced animal density quotas. Thus, organic farming represents a more conscientious approach to animal well-being than industrialised livestock operations.
In essence, a small-scale, labour-intensive and multifunctional shepherding approach, including dairy, meat, wool and landscape-scale conservation, is the most holistic approach to sheep farming. In our current profit-driven, globalised structures, such an approach is exceptionally challenging regarding scalability.
Which Labels Reflect Best Practices?
Despite a recent downturn in global wool production, driven by profitability concerns and a competitive race to the bottom, there’s encouraging news: sustainable alternatives are gaining market share. This positive trend signals a growing commitment to more responsible wool production methods.
Responsible Wool Standard (RWS)
The Responsible Wool Standard (RWS) outlines criteria centred on animal welfare that wool farms must meet. Patagonia initiated the RWS certification after various scandals PETA exposed concerning an Argentinian sheep farm. Today, other major brands like H&M and C&A have also joined the initiative.
As of 2023, the Responsible Wool Standard (RWS) label graced wool products from 354 certified farms across six countries. South Africa led the way with 150 farms, followed by Uruguay with 80, Argentina with 50, Australia with 45, New Zealand with 10, and the United States with a single farm. While encouraging, it’s worth noting that RWS-certified wool currently makes up less than 2% of total global wool production.
Responsible Mohair & Cashmere
Following the 2016 introduction of the Responsible Wool Standard (RWS), other similarly focused initiatives have emerged. The Responsible Mohair Standard (RMS) and the Responsible Cashmere Round Table (RCRT) were established in 2019 to extend animal welfare standards to angora and cashmere goats. Currently, 5% of all cashmere production in Mongolia meets sustainability certification, marking a positive stride forward.
QZ Label
In New Zealand, the QZ label serves a purpose akin to the Responsible Wool Standard, setting forth criteria to guarantee sustainable and humane wool production. Like the RWS, the QZ label accounts for approximately 1% of global wool output. Over the last two years, the QZ initiative has invested 2 million New Zealand Dollars in research and development — a significant stride, especially considering New Zealand is a major producer of mass-produced sheep’s wool, second only to Australia.
How Reliable are Labels?
Despite the emergence of eco-friendly labels such as those listed above, the complexity of today’s lengthy supply chains, dominated by numerous intermediaries, makes it challenging to fully ensure ethical production and traceability of the wool in a garment.
Furthermore, there are concerns about the accessibility of these certifications for smaller brands and sheep farmers who may lack the financial resources for certification despite practising ethical animal care. Although labels are a step forward, they’re not a panacea for animal welfare challenges.
A more robust solution might involve simplifying supply chains, reducing the number of intermediaries, and fostering direct relationships with wool farmers to enhance transparency within the industry.
The Rich Tapestry of Animal Wools
Merino Wool
Did you know there are several other types of wool besides classic sheep’s wool? One standout is Merino wool, derived from Merino sheep. This wool is especially cherished for its ultra-fine fibres, which result in exceptionally soft garments. Generally, the finer the fibres, the softer the end product will be.
However, Merino wool comes at a premium. The finer nature of the fibres requires a longer time frame for the wool to grow compared to those of other sheep breeds. Additionally, more fibres are needed to create the same garment. Furthermore, the intricate nature of fabrics like Merino wool necessitates a more labour-intensive production process.
Shetland Wool
Originating from the Shetland Isles north of Scotland, this wool is well-known for its fine, soft, and lightweight qualities. It’s commonly used in Fair Isle knitting.
Icelandic Wool
Icelandic wool is a coarse, dual-coated wool offering excellent water and wind resistance. It’s often used in heavy outer garments.
Cashmere
This luxurious fibre doesn’t come from sheep but from goats, primarily found in Mongolia, China, India, and Pakistan. These goats have a soft undercoat that they shed annually. However, the yield per goat is relatively low; the undercoat weighs only around 100g. In comparison, the average sheep yields 2.5kg of wool yearly, and alpacas produce up to 4kg. Therefore, cashmere’s scarcity contributes to its elevated price point.
Mohair
Like cashmere, mohair originates from goats — in this case, Angora goats. Don’t confuse them with Angora rabbits! A majority of the world’s mohair is produced in South Africa. Mohair incorporates the undercoat and the top coat, imparting a unique, fluffy texture to the wool.
Mohair fibres are marginally thicker than those of Merino wool but are long and smooth, rendering garments like sweaters or scarves soft and lustrous.
Alpaca wool
Alpaca wool is renowned for its exceptional softness, even surpassing merino wool. Sourced mainly from South America, particularly Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile, alpaca wool offers superior strength and sevenfold warmth compared to sheep’s wool. It’s an ideal choice for those particularly sensitive to the cold.
Moreover, alpaca wool is a hypoallergenic alternative for those allergic to lanolin, a natural wax produced by sheep for water and dirt repellency.
Suri Alpaca
Suri wool is a subtype of alpaca wool, which is noted for its silky, lustrous fibres, often used in weaving rather than knitting.
Qiviut
This wool is sourced from the Arctic musk ox’s underwool. It is softer than cashmere and is extremely warm. Due to its rarity and the difficult conditions under which it’s harvested, qiviut is usually quite expensive.
Yak Wool
Harvested from yaks found primarily in the Himalayas, this wool is warm, soft, and breathable. It is often compared to cashmere in terms of softness and warmth.
Camel Wool
Camel wool comes from the soft undercoat of camels. It’s lightweight yet offers excellent thermal insulation properties. It’s not as soft as some other types but is resilient and long-lasting.
Vicuña
This is one of the rarest and most expensive wools in the world, harvested from the vicuña, a South American relative of the alpaca. The fibres are exceptionally soft and fine.
Targhee
Targhee wool is a type of sheep’s wool native to the United States. It is less fine than Merino but is well-regarded for its elasticity and is often used in sock yarns.
Llama
Like alpacas, llamas also produce hypoallergenic wool that is both lightweight and good at wicking away moisture.
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